World War I postcard showing the Central Powers monarchs: (from left) Germany, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Austro-Hungarian Empire.

During the years leading to World War I, one of the main foreign policies of the Great Powers was to maintain the ‘Balance of Power’ in Europe. This evolved into an elaborate network of secret and public alliances and agreements.

For example, after the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), Britain seemed to favour a strong Germany, as it helped to balance its traditional enemy, France. After Germany began its naval construction plans to rival that of Britain, this stance shifted. The naval race between Britain and Germany was intensified by the 1906 launch of HMS Dreadnought. On the other hand, France, looking for an ally to balance the threat created by Germany, found it in Russia. Austria-Hungary, facing a threat from Russia, sought support from Germany.

The chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck, was the man responsible for the Triple Alliance. Bismarck wanted to prevent a two-front war, which is why he targeted France and Russia specifically.

By the late 1870s, Austrian ambitions in both Italy and Germany had been choked off by the rise of new national powers. With the decline and failed reforms of the Ottoman Empire, Slavic opposition in the occupied Balkans grew and Austria–Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878 and the empire eventually annexed them in October 1908 as a common holding under the control of the finance ministry, rather than attaching it to either territorial government. In order to counter Russian and French interests in Europe, the German-Austro-Hungarian alliance, which was known also as the Dual Alliance, was concluded in October 7, 1879.

Bismarck tactfully encouraged France to expand overseas in the hope of diverting her attention away from Alsace-Lorraine. French annexation of Tunis in northern Africa in 1881 alienated Italy, which was ambitious to build up an Italian empire in Africa. With this aim in mind, Italy joined the German-Austrian-Hungarian alliance to form the Triple Alliance on May 20, 1882, partly in anger at the French seizure of Tunisia in 1881, which many Italians had seen as a potential colony, partly to guarantee itself support in case of foreign aggression. The main alliance compelled any signatory country to support the other parties if two other countries attacked.

Bismarck successfully maintained the friendship of Russia,Austria-Hungary and Italy and kept France completely isolated

However, the position of Italy in the Triple Alliance seemed to be rather dubious. This was because the reasons that had impelled Italy to join the Triple Alliance were no longer important. By 1900, the Italians wanted to conquer Tripoli with French support. Thus, in 1900, a secret arrangement was concluded between France and Italy: France was given a free hand in Morocco, and Italy given a free hand in Tripoli.

In 1902, another secret agreement was entered into between France and Italy: each promised to be neutral if either was provoked into declaring war on a third power. This ran contrary to the terms of the Triple Alliance, by which Italy promised to aid Germany in case of a Franco-German war.

In 1909, Italy entered into the Racconigi Agreement with Russia. This stated that Italy would remain neutral in any Russian attempt to regain the control of the Dardanelles Strait and Constantinople in return for Russian diplomatic support for the Italian conquest of Tripoli. These Italian agreements made the Triple Alliance almost null and void.

The Triple Alliance seemed to be a powerful bloc formed in central Europe. Germany was guaranteed against Russia by Austria-Hungary and against France by Italy. Bismarck successfully maintained the friendship of Russia, Austria-Hungary and Italy and kept France completely isolated. He was indeed a skilful diplomat who was able to handle the European powers to Germany’s advantage.

Yet Italy’s commitment to the Triple Alliance was doubtful because the arch-enemy of Italian unity had been Austria-Hungary, whose Italian-populated districts in the Trentino and Istria were seen as Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy). On the other hand, France was the friend of Italian unity. Once Italy’s anger over Tunis cooled off, it would prefer an alliance with France to that with Austria-Hungary.

Many distinguished military analysts foresaw that Italy would change sides. This prediction was strengthened by Italy’s invasion and annexation of Tripoli, bringing it into conflict with the German-backed Ottoman Empire. There is some evidence that Germany and Austria-Hungary did not entirely trust their ally.

Italy’s ideas for maintaining the balance of power in Europe clearly gravitated towards major alliances and the country’s reasoning for not joining the Triple Alliance upon the outbreak of World War I, because it was a defensive alliance. In fact, Italy stayed neutral until 1915, when it joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary, and later on Germany in the subsequent year.

With the outbreak of World War I, the Dual Alliance or as they were commonly known, the Central Powers, entered the war – Austria-Hungary on July 28, 1914, and Germany on August 1, 1914, fighting the Triple Entente. They were joined by the Ottoman Empire secretly on August 2, 1914, but officially on October 29, 1914, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria entered on October 14, 1915.

To be continued.

Relevant artefacts and information can be seen at Heritage Malta’s National War Museum in Valletta.

Charles Debono is curator, National War Museum.