While most parents and educators agree that homework is an important element of education it also appears to be a significant cause of stress in families.

Moreover, the quantity and effectiveness of homework given to children at primary, middle and senior school level has long been a controversial issue, dividing educators and parents alike.

The theory is that homework reinforces what students learn at school and helps them develop good working habits and a sense of independence and personal responsibility.

Studies confirm that as children progress through their years of schooling, homework has an increasingly positive effect on their academic achievement, in that students who are assigned homework tend to outperform those who are not.

However, many parents and educators alike question the extent to which homework given contributes to learning. They point out that many times students feel overburdened by homework to the extent that it becomes counterproductive, with students resorting to plagiarism and parents ending up practically doing their children's homework.

Moreover, they add that excessive amounts of homework inevitably means that students have less time for sport, exercise, extra-curricular activities, communicating with parents, and leisure, resulting in stress, unsociable behaviour and obesity.

In 2006, two provocative books by critics of homework were published in the US: Alfie Kohn's The Homework Myth, and Sara Bennett and Nancy Kalish's The Case Against Homework.

Kohn argues that homework does not improve children's work habits or reinforce their skills, and that there was no correlation between increased homework and higher achievement before children reach high school. She added: "Most kids hate homework. They dread it, groan about it, put off doing it as long as possible. It may be the single most reliable extinguisher of the flame of curiosity."

Bennett and Kalish claim that there is absolutely no proof that homework helps pupils learn more. On the contrary, they argue that when children are asked to do too much, the opposite happens. They claim that even in later school years the benefits of homework start to decline as they become increasingly overloaded.

The Case Against Homework goes on to explain to parents how to distinguish between homework assignments that promote learning to others that are simply time-wasters, how to set priorities when their children are given excessive amounts of homework, how to talk and write to teachers and school administrators in a persuasive and non-confrontational way, and how to rally other parents to work together to restore balance in children's lives.

However, Jay Mathews, an education reporter for the Washington Post criticised both books for disregarding studies that link middle and high school homework with higher achievement.

"The two anti-homework books argue, reasonably, that some of the homework assigned to children does not make sense. But improving homework quality is not the same thing as abolishing it. It is better to fix a broken clock than give up trying to tell time," he said.

Matthews argues that neither book addresses parents' common sense reaction to the authors' anti-homework interpretation of formal research data.

He goes on to refer to his own personal experience of 15 years or so of schooling: "I remember what class was like on days when I had not done my homework. I remember what it was like on days when I had. The latter was a much more engaging and useful educational experience than the former.

Neither book explains why that practical and personal research should be ignored."

Studies show that homework stress is experienced by the vast majority of families with school-age children.

This is particularly true of parents of children who are moving from one school level and another, and parents facing the challenge of balancing household chores with the demands of jobs and careers outside the home.

Some studies show that the lower the level of education that parents themselves have, and the less they liked school, the more likely they are to see homework as a source of stress. This could be interpreted as reflecting such parents' inability to assist their children with their homework.

Other studies, however, indicate that the opposite may also be true, in that parents with a higher level of education are more likely to experience homework stress due to their higher expectations of, and aspirations for their children.

On the crucial question on how much homework students should be given, studies indicate that even after a minimal of time is spent doing homework, there is a positive effect on students' academic achievement. However, the studies also indicate that there is little or no additional benefit after about 90 minutes of homework daily.

For high school students, the positive relationship levels off at about two hours and may even decline beyond this. This suggests that the optimal amount of homework for high school students is between 90 minutes and two hours per day.

However, it may take students more than 10 hours per week to finish their homework if, for example, they have a lower level of academic achievement, or due to distractions.

Earlier this year, Cathy Vatterott, an associate professor of education at the University of Missouri, St Louis, US, published a book entitled Rethinking Homework: Best Practices that Support Diverse Needs.

The first half of the book takes a fresh look at the research on homework while the second half challenges teachers to rethink their homework policies and suggests ways to make homework more meaningful.

In the book, she proposes the adoption of the following 'Bill of Rights for Homework':

1. Children shall not be required to work more than 40 hours a week, when class time is added to homework time.

2. Children shall have the right to homework they can complete without help. If they cannot complete homework without help, children shall be entitled to reteaching or modified assignments.

3. A child's academic grade shall not be put in jeopardy because of incomplete homework. Children shall be entitled to an in-school or after-school homework support programme if they are unwilling or unable to complete work at home.

4. A child's right to playtime, downtime, and adequate sleep shall not be infringed upon by homework.

5. Parents shall be entitled to excuse their child from homework that the child does not understand or is too tired to finish.

6. Families should be entitled to weekends and holidays free from homework.

An interesting local website providing homework-related tips for parents on topics such as 'setting up shop', 'parents' supporting role', 'homework problems' and 'when kids struggle with homework', may be found at www.kidsmalta.com/articles/view/499/Helping-with-Homework.aspx.