On August 27, 1916, Romania declared war on the Central Powers and began the invasion of Austria-Hungary through the Carpathian Mountains. The Romanians advanced 50 miles into Transylvania. A day later, Italy declared war on Germany, thus expanding the scope of its military activities beyond the Italian-Austrian Front. On September 1, 1916, Romania was invaded by the newly formed Danube Army, consisting of Germans, Turks and Bulgarians under the command of a German general.

After Romania declared war, during an evening performance on St George’s Square, Valletta, by the band of the King’s Own Malta Regiment of Militia, the band also performed the Romanian anthem for the first time, in addition to the anthems of Britain’s other allies, which were usually played in public at the end of a programme. The Governor, who at that time was attending a dinner at the Casino Maltese, listened to the Romanian anthem from the balcony overlooking the square in company of the consul of that country. According to the Daily Malta Chronicle, when the anthem ended  “there was an outburst of enthusiasm expressed in cheering and clapping of hands which was maintained by vigour”.

Meanwhile, in the eastern Mediterranean, Anglo-French forces had already landed in the Greek port of Salonika on October 5, 1915. British troops stationed there were known as the British Salonika Force. It was commanded by Lieutenant General George Milne as from May 1916, following General Sir Bryan Mahon’s posting to Egypt. From late 1916 to early 1917, it comprised six infantry divisions, grouped into two corps. In support were the Royal Engineers, the Maltese, British and Macedonian labour battalions, the Maltese and Indian muleteers, the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), and the Canadian and volunteer medical services.

The Allies had intervened after the German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian armies invaded Serbia. The country was quickly overrun and the British advised that the troops should be withdrawn. However, the French with Russian, Italian and Serbian backing, still believed a development of strategic importance could be gained in the Balkans.

In late summer 1916, Bulgarian troops occupied parts of northern Greece, including Seres on August 19, and Drama and the port of Kavala on September 12. The Bulgarians also assumed occupation duties in Serbia to release Germans soldiers for the Western Front.

In August 1916, following the Romanian declaration of war against Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria joined the other Central Powers in an attack on Romania. Bulgarian troops advanced into the Dobrudzha against Romanian and Russian opposition, and seized the Black Sea port of Constanta on October 21. Together with German and Ottoman units, Bulgarian forces also crossed the Danube and overran Wallachia.

These attacks effectively knocked Romania out of the war and restored to Bulgaria southern Dobrudzha, which had been taken by Romania during the Second Balkan War. With the occupation of Macedonia and southern Dobrudzha, Bulgaria had accomplished its major war aims. Thereafter, Bulgarian strategy became largely defensive.

On September 2, 1916, the British War Office issued a call for Maltese men to join the Maltese Labour Battalion to serve at Salonika. The service was to be for three months and could be extended if necessary. All those who joined would be subject to military law. The call was for leading stevedores, leading labourers, stevedores and labourers. Their payment was to be 5s, 4s, 4s and 2s 6d respectively. Those wishing to join had to report to Major E. Amato Gauci, King’s Own Malta Regiment of Militia (KOMRM) at Lascaris Barracks, Valletta.

A few days afterwards enough men had been recruited to form the Maltese Battalion. Many had already served at Mudros Island during the Gallipoli campaign.

On September 21, 1916, the Maltese Labour Battalion paraded in Lascaris Ditch prior to their departure. The battalion consisted of 850 men, under the command of Major Vella; the officers in charge were Captain Pace, Adjutant and Qr Mr Adair, Lieutenant Samut Tagliaferro, Second Lieutenant Baroncino J. Chapell, Second Lieutenant Huber, Captain A. Vella (RAMC), Rev. Can. Cauchi and Rev. Fr C. Bezzina.

In autumn 1916, Entente forces, augmented by rested Serbian troops, undertook an offensive from the Salonika positions. They succeeded in taking a part of southwestern Macedonia, including the city of Monastir on November 19. The Entente forces attempted to advance further into Macedonia, but they met strong Bulgarian resistance and failed to break through the Bulgarian positions.

General Erich von Falkenhayn, the German Chief of the General Staff, was dismissed on August 29, 1916, and replaced by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, with General Ludendorff as his deputy. The new supreme command ordered an end to attacks at Verdun and the dispatch of troops from there to Romania and the Somme front.

On September 5, proposals for a new, shorter defensive position to be built in France were requested from the commanders of the western armies, who met Hindenburg and Ludendorff at Cambrai on September 8. The western front commanders were told that no reserves were available for offensive operations, except those planned for Romania.

On September 15, 1916, the British used tanks for the first time during the Battle of Flers-Courcelette (September 15-22, 1916), which was part of the Battle of the Somme. They attacked German positions along a five-mile front, advancing 2,000 yards with tank support.

On September 21, 1916, the Maltese Labour Battalion paraded in Lascaris Ditch prior to their departure. The battalion consisted of 850 men

Britain was the first country that developed the tank, which consisted of two small side-cannons and four machine-guns, operated by eight crew members. As the infantry advanced, individual tanks provided support by rolling over the German barbed wire, penetrating the frontline defence, and then moving along the length of the trench, using their machine-guns against the German soldiers.

On the Eastern Front, on September 20, 1916, the Brusilov Offensive was brought to a halt. The Russian army, under the command of General Alexei Brusilov, swept eastward up to 60 miles deep along a 300-mile front, where they captured about 350,000 Austro-Hungarian troops. However, the Russians were forced to withdraw after the Germans brought in 24 divisions from the Western Front and placed the surviving Austro-Hungarian troops under German command.

Meanwhile, on September 25, 1916, British and French troops renewed their attacks and these resulted in the Battle of Morval (September 25-28, 1916), which was also part of the Battle of the Somme. They captured several villages north of the Somme River, including Thiepval, where the British successfully use tanks again. Following these successes, however, heavy rain turns the entire battlefield to mud, preventing effective manoeuvres.

On October 8, 1916, the German military authorities founded the Luftstreikrafte (German Air Force), by amalgamating various aerial fighting groups.

In Eastern Europe, on October 10, 1916, the Romanian army started retreating back to Romania when the Austro-Hungarian-German troops pushed them out of Hungary. Afterwards they invaded Romania and headed towards Bucharest. On December 6, Bucharest, the capital of Romania, fell in Austro-Hungarian-German hands. This brought the end of Romanian resistance.

In October, Captain Joseph Ardoino, who had joined the Manchester Regiment from the Malta Militia, was transferred to the Indian Army, where he had been promoted to the rank of major as from April 1916. The London Gazette of October 4 announced the promotion of another Maltese, Surgeon Captain R. Randon, Royal Malta Artillery, to Surgeon Major.

On the Italian front, on August 6, 1916, the Italians started the Sixth Battle of the Isonzo (August 6-17, 1916). This was the first real Italian success of the war, when they gained a foothold on the Carso around Monte San Michele. Gorizia was captured and a bridgehead secured on the river. The Austro-Hungarians shifted troops to the Gorizia sector to prevent a breakthrough. The Italian offensive stopped there.

Fighting continued through the autumn during the Seventh (September 14-17, 1916), Eighth (October 10-12, 1916) and the Ninth Battles of the Isonzo (November 1-4, 1916). They were essentially a continuation of attempts to extend the bridgehead established at Gorizia.

The Austro-Hungarian Army’s command of the mountainous terrain provided a formidable natural barrier to the Italians’ attempts to achieve a breakthrough. On 13 December 13, 1916, known as ‘White Friday’, 10,000 soldiers, both Italian and Austro-Hungarians, were killed by avalanches in the Dolomites.

In October 1916, Corporal Henry De Lancelloti arrived in Malta on leave of absence, after 16 months service in the 27th Regiment, Italian Army. He took part in action in the first line on the heights of Padgora, where his gallantry earned him decoration.

Returning to the Western Front on October 24, 1916, the French under General Robert Nivelle, began an ambitious offensive at Verdun by targeting Fort Douaumont and other German-occupied sites on the east bank of the Meuse River. The attack was preceded by the heaviest artillery bombardment to date by the French.

Additionally, French infantry used an effective new tactic in which they slowly advanced in stages, step-by-step behind encroaching waves of artillery fire. Using this creeping barrage tactic, they seized Fort Douaumont, then took Fort Vaux further east, nine days later.

Several other clashes were fought during the Battle of the Somme, which included the Battle of Thiepval (September 26-28, 1916), the Battle of Le Transloy (October 1-18, 1916, and the Battle of the Ancre Heights (October 1-November 11, 1916). On November 13, 1916, British troops started the Battle of the Ancre, which was a surprise attack and captured the towns of Beaumont Hamel and Beaucourt at the northern end of the Somme Front.

The Battle of the Somme ended on November 18, 1916, when the British and French decided to halt the offensive. By now, the Germans had been pushed back just a few miles along the entire 15-mile front, but the major breakthrough the Allies had planned never occurred. Both sides each suffered over 600,000 casualties during the five-month battle.

Among the injured German soldiers was Corporal Adolf Hitler, the future Nazi dictator of Germany.

On December 5, the Daily Malta Chronicle announced that Lieutenant Charles Alfred Muscat of the King’s Own Malta Regiment of Militia had been awarded the coveted distinction of the Military Cross for gallantry in the field of battle. Attached to the South Staffordshire Regiment, he twice took command of his company and directed operations with great skill and determination at a very critical moment in the attack.

On December 7, 1916, Lloyd George was appointed Britain’s new Prime Minister. His new War Cabinet immediately began to organise the country for “total war”. Five days later, Joseph Joffre resigned under pressure from his position as Commander-in-Chief of the French Army, and he was replaced by General Robert Nivelle.

The last offensive in the Battle of Verdun started on December 15, 1916, when the French pushed the Germans out of Louvemont and Bezonvaux on the east bank of the Meuse River. Combined with other ground losses, the German withdrawal ended the immediate threat to Verdun and both sides now focused their efforts on battles elsewhere along the Western Front. Overall, the French and Germans combined suffered nearly a million casualties during the 10-month battle in which the Germans failed to capture the city of Verdun.

During these two years of warfare, there were several attempts to end the war. On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers publicly called for peace negotiations with their enemies, stating no specific conditions or demands. However, more soldiers and civilians were to lose their life, before the war finally ended.

Concluded

Charles Debono is curator, National War Museum.