Malta’s long and arduous process leading to statehood could only have happened if it no longer formed part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and subsequently, Italy. But one might ask: If Lampedusa forms part of the province of Agrigento in Sicily, why didn’t Malta follow suit? What made Malta go its own way?

The arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte in Malta in June 1798 started it all. It startled the Maltese from a 268-year slumber under the Order of St John. A series of shockwaves would metamorphose a rocky, barren island into a nation.

For the first time, our forefathers raised their collective voice and fought for their values. The French invasion was a catalyst for Malta. The consequences would be long-lasting. What made our forefathers seek protection away from their sovereign? This would make of Malta a unique Island.

Two books prove to be revealing for an investigative reading of the period – The French in Malta by the late Charles Testa and a History of Malta by William Hardman, published in London in 1909. Both books are rich in detail, quoting extant documents in libraries in France, England and Malta.

After reading them one can understand the culture shock our forefathers went through during those two short and turbulent years which led to their uprising against the French after just 82 days of government. And one can also understand the reaction of the Maltese when they were denied help and assistance from their sovereign, the King of the Two Sicilies.

In early 1798, Napoleon’s plans to invade England, much to his regret, had to be abandoned. The risks were too high and victory doubtful. Instead, he set his eyes on Egypt.

“We will soon realise that the only way to destroy England is by occupying Egypt,” he wrote to the foreign secretary in Paris from the north of Italy. Egypt, of course, was a shortcut for the British to India. Malta, because of her geographical position between France and Egypt, was indispensable for Napoleon’s plans, ensuring in the process that it would not fall into the hands of the Russians, the Austrians or, God forbid, the English.

By September 27, 1797, the Executive Directory (the French government) had already given Napoleon the go-ahead for the occupation of Malta. Preparations included sending spies to Malta who would meet with republican sympathisers on the island, including a number of French knights.

One very useful informant for the French was the Maltese Ċensu Barbara, a freemason, who had already spent time in prison in Malta for his pro-French activities. Barbara managed to get quite close to Napoleon, and with his knowledge of Malta and its people he was instrumental in convincing Napoleon to take over the island.

On November 14, 1797, Bonaparte instructed Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys d’Aigalliers, who was based in Corfu, to attempt a takeover of Malta with 3,000 men while on his way to Toulon. Brueys could not proceed with that order until he received the required funds.

His reply was so indicative of future problems for Napoleon: “I have been waiting to receive funds for the payment of the crews now five months overdue and for the purchase of victuals...” was Brueys’s answer to Napoleon. Money problems would be one of the leading factors for the French overthrow in Malta.

Admiral Brueys, on board the Guillaume Tell, arrived with his fleet off Malta on March 3, 1798, ostensibly to carry out urgent repairs to one of his ships. From his observations he concluded that an invasion then was not advisable and continued on his way to Toulon.

Meanwhile, Napoleon was amassing a huge army of 54,000 men, called the Army of the East for the Malta and Egyptian campaign. They were to depart from various ports in France and Italy on board 400 ships.

This great movement of ships and men could not fail to attract the attention of countries eager to guess the destination of this mighty army. England was expecting Napoleon to attempt an attack on Portugal or even Ireland. However, early reports indicated Egypt or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which would include Malta.

The lure of the treasures of the Knights and the money in the Università dei Grani were too good to miss

The British fleet had not been in the Mediterranean since November 1796. Reports were reaching the British government regarding Bonaparte and his preparations for war. The British government decided to send Admiral Nelson to the Mediterranean with instructions to keep watch over Napoleon’s fleet and the direction of its destination. By May 17, 1798, Nelson was already at Cape Sicie, some 20 kilometres west of Toulon. Napoleon, with his fleet, left Toulon two days later.

At this stage, a better perspective of Napoleon’s intentions about Malta can be gained by knowing what he was up to as commander of the French forces in Italy just before embarking for the Maltese and Egyptian campaign. He was obsessive about coming to terms with England now that his dream of invading that country had to be abandoned. He now aimed to cut Britain’s access to the trade routes to India.

The Egyptian campaign would be costly and funds earmarked for the English invasion were now redirected for the Army of the East. But more funds were needed. It is now generally recognised that the occupation of Rome and the Papal State, as well as the Swiss cantons, which took place early in 1798, were motivated by financial considerations. Major-General Berthier, on his appointment by Napoleon as Treasurer of the Rome campaign, told him: “You appoint me treasurer, I promise to endeavour to fill the chest.”

The arrival of the British fleet in the Mediterranean must have been a major blow for Napoleon. This was a turning point, as his plans for Malta were now in jeopardy. It seems as though even the Directory had second thoughts about Malta.

A secret order signed by the Executive Directory on April 12, 1798, authorised Napoleon to occupy Egypt and Malta. But then, as if an afterthought, a new proviso was added to the order with regard to Malta: “the order instructing General Bonaparte, Commander-in-chief of the Army of the East, instructing him to take possession of Malta, is not to be executed, unless it can be accomplished without prejudice to the success of other operations with which he is charged. The Directory on this point relies completely on his prudence.”

This is significant. It is also a strong warning: Napoleon was not to risk the Egyptian campaign for Malta. The possession and holding of Malta was in doubt and he would be held responsible for any consequences.

What made the Executive Directory change its mind about Malta? It must have been the return of Nelson in the Mediterranean. But in the light of this new order by the Directory one is justified to ask – why did Napoleon persist in invading Malta?

Napoleon would have known that to govern the Maltese islands, with its population of 100,000, required a constant and uninterrupted supply of imports, mainly foodstuff, from Sicily. He did not plan for this.

Nelson, a great admiral, writing to the British Ambassador in Naples, Sir John Hamilton, on June 17 (when Napoleon was already in Malta), told him: “if the French have Malta, we must have free use of Sicily to enable us to starve the French in Malta.” Napoleon was in a fix and he knew it. But still, he opted for a calculated risk.

He had been fully briefed about the island. Months before, he had sent Etienne Poussielgue to Malta as his envoy, and his report included a detailed account of the financial resources of the Order and of the Maltese churches. He knew what a treasure trove the Palace of the Grand Masters was, as well as the silver and gold in the auberges and churches, including St John’s Co-cathedral. He also knew there was money in the Treasury. This was too good an opportunity to miss!

With Malta relying almost completely on Sicily for importation of its corn, it stands to reason that to possess Malta Napoleon needed to have Sicily on his side, but he did not. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was an ally of England at the time.

So what made Napoleon take the risk and invade Malta even though he knew full well his inability to keep it? Was the conquest of Malta by Napoleon just a fundraising exercise? The lure of the treasures of the Knights and the money in the Università dei Grani were too good to miss. He decided to make a dash for it – he took the island and left as quickly as he could before the British could catch up with him.

On board the L’Orient accompanying Bonaparte on his way to Malta and Egypt, there was Brueys, General Jean-Andoche Junot and a bevy of scientists, archaeologists and geologists.

There was also Dominique Vivant, Baron de Denon, who was surely instrumental for the Malta mission not to be aborted. He knew Malta very well, having visited the island several times. He sketched Malta’s antiquities and even described the Maltese.

Denon is described thus: “A French artist, writer, diplomat, author and archaeologist; appointed first director of the Louvre Museum by Napoleon on whose behalf he looted vast numbers of art in Italy, the Low Countries, Germany and Spain, for the Musée Napoleon in Paris. He assembled for himself an enormous collection of paintings, drawings, prints, books, statuary and objets d’art. Sold at auction after Denon’s death.”

The gold and silver of the knights were surely a lure. This was the background behind Napoleon’s invasion of Malta. What an impressive sight it must have been – 400 ships anchored off the east coast of Malta on that fateful June 9, 1798. They must have stretched all the way from Gozo to Marsaxlokk.

About 40,000 men landed at four different points in Malta and another 2,500 in Gozo. It was very early in the morning of June 10, 1798. They came ashore at St Paul’s Bay, St Julian’s, Marsaxlokk and Ramla Bay in Gozo.

By 10am, a contingent of French soldiers headed by Barbara waving a white flag, had arrived below Saqqajja in Rabat. He appealed to his countrymen not to offer any resistance since the French had no quarrel with the Maltese; they only wanted to expel the Order from Malta.

The Maltese hurriedly called a meeting, which included Bishop of Malta Vincenzo Labini and the Hakem. They agreed to surrender, provided the French promised to respect the Church, the Catholic faith and the privileges, laws and property of the Maltese. The French, of course, agreed, and a document was signed. A copy can still be seen at the Cathedral Museum. The great respect the Maltese held for signed papers would prove detrimental in their dealings with Napoleon.

Mdina had surrendered even before Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch had capitulated. No doubt, Barbara took his French colleagues on a tour of the ancient city, not missing the beautiful cathedral and its treasures. It was now lunchtime and the bishop invited the leaders of the French contingent to lunch.

Back in Valletta, a great debate was taking place in the Palace discussing the pros and cons of capitulation. The people there were gripped by fear and chaos. The statue of St Paul, patron saint of Malta, was taken in a procession around the city of Valletta followed by a huge crowd.

Money problems would be one of the leading factors for the French overthrow in Malta

By the morning of June 11, the French were practically all over the island. The Grand Master yielding to pressure from a number of knights as well as Maltese, asked for a ceasefire.

Early in the afternoon, a French delegation headed by General Junot arrived at the Palace to arrange the terms of the armistice. Amid a discussion about what preambles were to be used in the armistice agreement, Junot insisted that there was no need for preambles and he immediately started dictating the terms.

Everybody sat quietly listening. No one dared raise any objections. The gist of the agreement was that the armistice was to last 24 hours during which time delegates were to be sent to the L’ Orient to arrange for a capitulation. The agreement signed, Junot expressed his wish to be taken around the Palace and its armoury, conscious of the fact that they would soon be the sole owners of the place.

Hompesch asked Knight-Commander Déodat de Dolomieu, another keen Republican, of all people, to be his guide. Dolomieu knew Malta well, having served the Order as a lieutenant; he was also a mineralogist (the Dolomites in the Italian Alps are named after him).

All that remained now was for Hompesch to appoint the delegates for the signing of the capitulation. Some prominent Valletta residents, sensing that the end was near, gathered at the Banca Giuratale in Merchants Street to petition the Grand Master to include Maltese representation for the signing of the capitulation, hoping they would obtain a favourable peace treaty for the Maltese.

The following were appointed to form the delegation to sign the capitulation: Bosredon Ransijat, a staunch Republican, secretary to the Treasury of the Order since 1776 and therefore in an ideal position to know the exact financial strength of the Order; Torino Frisari, ambassador of the King of the Two Sicilies; the Spanish knight Chevalier Philip Amat, acting as a mediator between the Order and France; the Maltese representatives: Baron Mario Testaferrata, Advocate G. Nicolò Muscat, Advocate Benedict Schembri.

At the last moment, Hompesch also included his secretary Pierre-Jean Doublet, as an observer. Why Doublet? Could it be that Hompesch wished to say something to Napoleon?

It was around 11pm when the boat carrying the delegation arrived on L’Orient. Napoleon was already asleep. When he was awakened he went to meet the delegation accompanied by General Louis-Alexandre Berthier and Admiral Brueys.

Inside Napoleon’s cabin, Doublet, a clerk by profession, prepared to write down what would be dictated. Napoleon snatched the pen from him and announced he would do all the writing himself. He opined that the word ‘capitulation’ was too humiliating for a military Order with such a glorious past, and the word ‘convention’ should be used instead.

This 28-year-old was able to mesmerise all the delegates before him even though they must have been much older than him. What a personality! He knew he was in full control. With pen in hand, Napoleon started writing the convention and their silence meant consent.

Doublet tried his best to make one or two objections but he was quickly snubbed. Napoleon was unstoppable. He allowed Frisari, as representative of the Two Sicilies, to include a proviso to safeguard the interest of his King as regards the sovereignty of Malta. He agreed, telling Frisari: “Any proviso could always be swept aside by cannonballs.” This was a clear signal that went unheeded by the Maltese present.

Having been snubbed twice by Napoleon, Doublet waited for his chance to avenge himself. The convention consisted of eight articles. After it was signed by all concerned, Doublet was also handed the pen for him to sign. He refused, saying he was not sent as a delegate, but, he continued: “if I had been so sent, I would never sign an agreement so dishonourable to the Order, the Knights and to the Maltese.”

Napoleon turned on him and ordered him to explain what he meant by those words. “As soon as the French fleet left Malta, the British would blockade the islands,” retorted Doublet. This was prophetic.

Commander Brueys flew into a rage and angrily told Doublet he was ignorant of the might of the French fleet. Brueys, of course, knew that the mighty French fleet would be abandoning Malta and would be well on its way to Egypt in six days’ time. For once, Napoleon kept silent.

It was the small hours of June 12, 1798. When the four Maltese delegates returned to Valletta they headed straight to the Banca Giuratale where there was a crowd gathered there eagerly waiting for the news. From the stairs of the main door they announced the conditions as written by Napoleon, adding that once their religion and property were immune, the agreement was most favourable to the Maltese.

To be concluded.