Origins of the 'blackshirt'

Charles J. Buttigieg's contribution (March 24, I do not know whether the title Black Was In The Air was his or the editor's) thwarts history and adulterates his readers' mind. He should not get away with it.

I had written in The Times that Vincenzo Bonello had designed in 1927 the emblem of the Nationalist Party, with a black background, which in heraldry represented fortitude and victory.

In his contribution Mr Buttigieg asserts: "Victor Ragonesi disputed my argument that the black background on the PN flag is a sad reminder of their admiration to the late Benito Mussolini and his fascist regime."

The word fascio was neither conceived nor used for the first time by Mussolini's party. The colour "black" never represented fortitude and victory.

These are the facts:

1. "Fasci Siciliani. The first fasci (literally "bundles") were established in Sicilian towns in the late 19th century as mutual aid societies for workers and peasants... In 1893 they began to gain widespread support among the Sicilian peasantry." - Chambers Dictionary of Word History - 1994.

2. "Mussolini was later to identify Fasci with the bundles of rods carried by the Roman victors, the appellation in 1915 carried no special significance. The word fascio was then in current use to describe a political group. For example, under Crispi, 'Fasci Siciliani had been formed to voice the grievances of the local peasantry, and in later years there had been a Neapolitan fascio, created to fight abuses in the town's administration'." Mussolini - A Study In Power, by Ivone Kirkpatrick, 1964.

3. "The Arditi (commando) di combattimento were formed during the battle of Caporetto (World War I - 1914-1918), which was a military disaster for Italy. They called themselves on March 23, 1919 Fasci di combattimento. During the war they always wore black shirts under the uniform and carried a black flag - the colour of death and of war." After the war, without a uniform, they always wore a black shirt. - Storia Universale, Vol. 23.

4. The first meeting by Italians, which ultimately culminated in the Fascist Party, was held in 1919, and was chaired by a member of the Arditi, who wore a black shirt. At that meeting the large majority were Arditi. - Mussolini, A New Life, by Nicholas Farrell, 2003.

5. In August 1919, Gabriele D'Annunzio occupied Fiume with the Arditi, who wore black shirts. So-called "fascists" were not involved. Mr D'Annunzio conceived a black uniform and black fezzes. Ibidem, Kirkpatrick.

These are the origins of the fascio and the "blackshirt".

Mr Buttigieg then regales in referring to dictator Franco. I had commented:

• Dictator Franco saved Spain from communism. Did he? Yes.

• Dictator Franco saved the Mediterranean from Communism, where the huge Red Fleet roamed mainly in the eastern part, hardly equalled, later, by the American sixth fleet. Did he? Yes.

• Dictator Franco refused to join the Axis in World War II, although dictated to by Hitler. Did he? Yes.

• Dictator Franco prepared Spain for a democratic government under a monarchical system. Did he? Yes.

The rest of Mr Buttigietg's article is jargon.