Since the early stages of the industrial evolution, man began to adapt himself to an industrial environment. He had to make himself fit into the new way of earning a living, in factories, which was rather different from the customary employment.
Factory labour was often more disciplined but dull, and generally more dangerous than work in agriculture or in the other traditional trades. The exploitation of men and women was rampant. Even children were exploited which eventually led to the introduction of child labour laws, which in most countries were introduced in the early 20th century.
In Malta the first legislation intended to regulate some aspects of health and safety at work, including the employment of women and children came through the Factories Regulation Act, 1926.
Unfortunately, what could have been a healthy birth for occupational health and safety on the island, started on a bad note. The Governor of the time, who had the power to bring the Act into force, never did because the provisions of the Act were considered too rigid.
New occupations and new hazards
The historical change caused by industrialisation, from the traditional way of life, to modern societies, transformed the economies of many countries. Employment was also undergoing transformation, since many traditional crafts, skills and trades slowly became obsolete.
New skills and trades started to emerge, generating new occupations which in turn created new hazards and new risks.
According to sociologist A. Giddens, in his famous Sociology, it is estimated that there are now over 20,000 distinct occupations, while before the industrial revolution, only two or three dozen traditional major craft trades existed.
The industrial revolution made possible an increase in production that was aided by mechanisation, automation and other processes that were carried out in factories. This accelerated a search for new methods, new machines and technical innovation. Among the first to be fully mechanised was the cotton textile industry.
In the late 18th century, steam-powered machinery in factories, made faster production more possible, and this use of steam power led in turn to the increased demand for coal and energy. Steam power not only spawned new technological breakthroughs and advancement, but also introduced other new risks and hazards to the workers who worked with these machines.
Undoubtedly, the advent of electrical power brought to industry new advancement, new benefits and new dangers.
From agrarian to industrial societies
The industrial revolution changed traditional agrarian communities into urban industrial societies. Commerce was on the increase and people's way of life was changing fast. But life in the 19th century was unpleasant.
Workers had only few rights and the environment was often polluted with noise, filth and smoke, and little was done to improve these conditions. Workers accepted the situation without demur.
Housing conditions were also generally bad and unsanitary. Basic needs such as water supply and sewage disposal were deficient, hygiene was poor and diseases prevailed.
Factory life was hard, occupational health and safety was non-existent and many injuries and diseases were being suffered by workers without much concern by the authorities. The workers themselves often had to find ways to improve their working and living conditions.
So common were these conditions that critics sometimes claimed that all industrial cities were the same, whatever the country. The living conditions of this era are masterfully reflected in many of the works of Charles Dickens.
Eventually, politicians began making new laws intending to improve the working and social conditions of the people. This led to factory legislation, sanitary improvements and welfare programmes. Workers formed unions to protect their interests.
Products were soon being mass produced and were now being made cheaper and could be bought by the workers themselves. But people often felt that they had less control over their destiny, as machines, although created by humans, seemed to become their masters.
Many occupations were no longer interesting and satisfying like the crafts and skills of the traditional trades, where the worker was able to manufacture the complete product himself, from the start to the end.
Now, he was part of a production line, and only producing the same part of a product, day in and day out, without end. This is ingeniously illustrated in Charles Chaplin's Modern Times.
People and work
But despite the fact that many machines were being introduced in industry, and that it is people who use them, not enough thought was given to the human aspect of this man/machine relationship.
Consideration was not always given to adapting the machine to the worker, and frequently, man had to adapt himself to the machine.
Not enough consideration was given to adapt work in general to man, so that he can be healthy, safe, and also able to produce a better and a more efficient output. That is what ergonomics tries to achieve.
This was, of course, hampered by the technological and engineering limitations of that time, as well as by the culture of that era, which would have instantly rejected the concept of adapting work to the worker.
Furthermore, industrial experience was very limited at the time; little information was available for the learning from past knowledge and from past mistakes.
Nevertheless, a great deal of attention was given to technology and engineering, which were developing fast. It is now accepted that poorly designed machines, or machines designed without enough thought to ergonomics, can easily lead to inefficiency, low productivity, poor quality, time wastage, health problems and also to accidents and injuries.
Adding difficult environmental working conditions such as noise, too cold or hot an environment or inadequate lighting to a poor man/machine combination will surely make the situation worse.
As industrial experience rapidly increased, it soon became evident that to adapt machines, work and work environment to the worker, it is not always enough to turn exclusively to common sense and to technology, but one has also to scientifically consider the mental and physical capabilities of people.
W.T. Singleton, in The Industrial Use of Ergonomics published by HMSO, stated that many improvements in ergonomics resulted from studies by industrial psychologists and physiologists during and after the first world war.
He also claims that it was not until the second world war however, that a practical engineering approach, together with an academic biological approach on a large scale, was behind many improvements in the science of ergonomics.
Ironically, the driving force behind this change was to produce better and more efficient guns, tanks, airplanes and other weapons of war.
Thus it was proved essential that experts on human capabilities (and limitations) and engineers, should work together to achieve the best results.
Therefore, by considering the principles of anatomy, physiology and psychology, together with technology, man was able to produce better and more efficient processes, machines (including weapons of war), equipment, tools, methods of work, workstations and also workplaces.
Simply put, ergonomics is the study of adapting work and the work environment to the worker. This will assure efficiency, high productivity, minimise illnesses and injury risks, and increases satisfaction among the workforce.
Nowadays, ergonomics is not restricted only to the man/machine relationship, i.e. adapting machine to man, but has a much wider scope.
Ergonomics is, in fact, concerned with adapting all the aspects of work to man. The word ergonomics itself is derived from two Greek words, ergon and nomos meaning 'work' and 'laws' respectively.
One definition of ergonomics is given as "the science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands to the capabilities of the working population.
"Effective and successful fits, assure high productivity avoidance of illness and injury risks, and increased satisfaction among the workforce".
Work organisation is also an important aspect of ergonomics to be considered. Poor management undermines motivation and job satisfaction. Employees whose skills are badly utilised or not given a chance to develop, are bored, tired and frustrated, and will not care very much about quality and productivity. They are more likely to give less attention to the work, to make mistakes and to have accidents.
Employees need to feel that their work has some value, and that they can develop their abilities. Good management promotes teamwork and develops individual initiative, encourages suggestions from workers and their supervisors.
Applying ergonomic principles
Applying ergonomic principles is best and cheaper attained when projects and plans are still on the drawing board, at the design stage, but can also be applied to improve existing workplaces, workstations, machines, equipment, tools, etc.
Nevertheless, it is often possible that minor alterations or additions can be made to improve the efficiency, health, safety and comfort of workers, thus improving productivity.
Ergonomics is also concerned with the physical environment at the place of work. Problems related to noise, vibration, ambient temperature, type of clothing and illumination, can be improved by applying the principles of ergonomics. It has been shown that adverse environmental conditions can cause inefficiency in worker performance.
When these conditions are not bad enough to directly affect the health of people, it is proved that accidents are more likely to ensue.
Even the surroundings can be improved to become more conducive to productivity and to health and safety.
Thus, factories and workshops painted in suitable industrial colour schemes to give light and pleasant surroundings, can provide a general atmosphere of well being, can help to reduce stress, tension, apathy and boredom. To say the least, a dull ambience will not help in any way.
Seated workstations
Many seated workstations are nowadays designed ergonomically. Examples of these workstations are computer workstations, which are used extensively in commerce and in industry, both in offices and in production areas. It is not surprising therefore, now that we are in the 'computer age' that these workstations are adapted to the worker.
Although the operator's physical effort could be small, seated work such as computer work, usually involves long hours in the same posture, and involves also a high repetition of movements of the same parts of the body.
This is conducive to repetitive stress injuries (RSIs) and to upper limb disorders (ULDs).
The chair in such a workstation is of the utmost importance. A poorly designed chair can lead to many disorders such as fatigue, painful muscles, stiff joints and also bad circulation. These adverse effects will surely result in a lowered productivity.
Experts suggest that a good chair must have a firm seat pan rather than being soft or hard. The cushioning should be able to distribute the body weight evenly not to cause undue pressure on boney projections.
Its fabric must be breathable and provide enough friction not to allow users to slide. There must be no hard edges that might restrict blood circulation in the legs. The seat pan height should be easily adjustable from the seating position. This height should permit the feet to be placed flat on the floor without effort. If this cannot be attained, then a footrest should be provided.
Preferably, the seat pan should also be able to be slightly tilted forward and backward. Changing the seat pan tilt throughout the working day may reduce the discomfort caused by long static postures.
Experts also maintain that the backrest must support the lower back and should be long enough to support also the mid-back. The backrest should wrap around the back slightly but should not hinder arm movement. It should be easily adjustable forward and backward, as well as up and down.
Where needed, ergonomically designed chairs are also supplied with armrests. These will support the weight of the arms, which is rather considerable. Supporting the arms will reduce muscle fatigue and pain or discomfort in the neck and shoulders.
Another function of the armrests is to support and steady the arms when hand precision is required. Armrests are also useful when raising or lowering the body on the chair.
In certain circumstances these armrests should also be adjustable up and down as well as sideways. However, chairs with removable armrests are recommended since it may be preferred to perform some tasks without them. Enough room should be available for the legs and feet below the desk to allow easy change of leg positions.
Ergonomics and the law
Our occupational health and safety legislation did not forget ergonomics either. This is because one of the measures that need to be taken by employers to prevent physical and psychological occupational ill-health or injury, is required to be taken on the basis of this principle of prevention:
"Adapt the work to the worker, particularly insofar as the design of work places, the choice of work equipment and the choice of working and production methods are concerned, especially with a view to alleviating monotonous work and work at a predetermined work-rate, and to reduce their effect on health".
This general principle of prevention, gives ergonomics due importance, and requires that all employers adapt the work to the worker in all places of work.
It can be found in Part II, Section 6 (2) (g) of the Occupational Health and Safety Authority Act, 2000.
Thus ergonomics is also being given due importance in our legislation. This provision, along with others, will surely reap benefits for workers and employers alike. After all, a healthy worker is a happy worker, and a happy worker is more productive. Investing in ergonomics is investing in the workers, which are the best resource in every organisation.